The elephant family has a deep evolutionary history. Modern elephants are the surviving members of a much larger group of mammals called Proboscidea, which once included many different forms with varied bodies, teeth and tusks.
Late Eocene – Oligocene, roughly 37–30 million years ago
Moeritherium was an early proboscidean from northern Africa. It was much smaller than modern elephants and had a low, heavy body. Its skull and teeth show early stages in the evolutionary history of the proboscidean group. It did not look like a modern elephant and is not considered a direct ancestor with certainty.
Late Eocene – Oligocene, around 36–30 million years ago
Palaeomastodon was an early proboscidean with an elongated lower jaw and tusks in both the upper and lower jaws. Its anatomy shows how the distinctive proboscidean feeding apparatus evolved over time.
Oligocene, around 30–27 million years ago
Phiomia was another early proboscidean from Africa. It had upper and lower tusks and a more recognisably elephant-like skull than some earlier forms. It belonged to an extinct branch of the proboscidean family tree.
Miocene – Pleistocene, about 20 million to 10,000 years ago
Gomphotheres were a diverse group of proboscideans. Some species had long lower jaws and shovel-like lower tusks, while others had different combinations of tusks and teeth. They spread across several continents and demonstrate how varied ancient elephant relatives could be.
Miocene – Pleistocene, roughly 20–1 million years ago
Deinotherium was a very large proboscidean recognised by its unusual downward-curving lower tusks. Its tusks were very different from those of modern elephants. It represents a distinct extinct lineage, not a direct ancestor of living elephants.
Miocene – Late Pleistocene, with some species surviving until around 10,000 years ago
Stegodon was an extinct genus of proboscidean found across parts of Asia. Some species were enormous. Its molar structure and evolutionary relationships distinguish it from the living elephant genera, although it was part of the wider proboscidean radiation.
Pliocene – Holocene, roughly 5 million to 4,000 years ago
Mammoths were close relatives of modern elephants in the family Elephantidae. The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) evolved adaptations for cold environments, including dense fur and a layer of body fat. Mammoths were not the ancestors of modern elephants; they shared older ancestors with them.
Miocene – Late Pleistocene, with the American mastodon disappearing around 10,000 years ago
The American mastodon (Mammut americanum) was a proboscidean, but it was not a true mammoth. Its teeth had cone-shaped cusps suited to browsing leaves and twigs. Mastodons belonged to a different family from mammoths and living elephants.
Living lineages
Today, the living elephant family includes the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and African elephants in the genus Loxodonta. These living lineages share ancient ancestors but evolved separately. The Sri Lankan elephant is a subspecies of the Asian elephant.
Researchers compare fossil skulls, teeth, tusks, limb bones and other anatomical features. They also use geological dating, ancient DNA where preserved, and comparisons with living species. Fossils are incomplete, so family relationships can change as new discoveries and analyses become available.
Extinction happened for different reasons at different times. Climate shifts, changing habitats, competition, ecological change and, for many late-surviving large mammals, human hunting and landscape transformation may all have played roles. There is no single explanation that applies to every extinct proboscidean.
Natural History Museum, London · Smithsonian Institution · American Museum of Natural History · Wikimedia Commons: Proboscidea
Reconstructions are artistic interpretations based on fossil evidence. Image availability and file selection may vary; consult each original file page for attribution and licence details.